ksh(1) [ultrix man page]

ksh(1) General Commands Manual ksh(1)

Name
ksh, rksh - KornShell, a standard/restricted command and programming language

Syntax
ksh [ +-aefhikmnoprstuvx ] [ +-o option ] ... [ -c string ] [ arg ... ]
rksh [ +-aefhikmnoprstuvx ] [ +-o option ] ... [ -c string ] [ arg ... ]

Description
The shell is a command and programming language that executes commands read from a terminal or a file. The rksh shell is a restricted ver-
sion of the command interpreter ksh; it is used to set up login names and execution environments whose capabilities are more controlled
than those of the standard shell. See Invocation for the meaning of arguments to the shell.

Definitions
A metacharacter is one of the following characters:

; & ( ) | < > new-line space tab

A blank is a tab or a space. An identifier is a sequence of letters, digits, or underscores starting with a letter or underscore. Identi-
fiers are used as names for functions and `named parameters'. A word is a sequence of characters separated by one or more non-quoted
metacharacters.

A command is a sequence of characters in the syntax of the shell language. The shell reads each command and carries out the desired action
either directly or by invoking separate utilities. A special command is a command that is carried out by the shell without creating a sep-
arate process. Except for documented side effects, most special commands can be implemented as separate utilities.

Commands
A simple-command is a sequence of blank separated words which may be preceded by a parameter assignment list. See Environment below. The
first word specifies the name of the command to be executed. Except as specified below, the remaining words are passed as arguments to the
invoked command. The command name is passed as argument 0 (see The value of a simple-command is its exit status if it terminates normally,
or (octal) 200+status if it terminates abnormally (see for a list of status values).

A pipeline is a sequence of one or more commands separated by |. The standard output of each command but the last is connected by a to the
standard input of the next command. Each command is run as a separate process; the shell waits for the last command to terminate. The
exit status of a pipeline is the exit status of the last command.

A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by ;, &, &&, or ||, and optionally terminated by ;, &, or |&. Of these five sym-
bols, ;, &, and |& have equal precedence, which is lower than that of && and ||. The symbols && and || also have equal precedence. A
semicolon (;) causes sequential execution of the preceding pipeline; an ampersand (&) causes asynchronous execution of the preceding pipe-
line (that is, the shell does not wait for that pipeline to finish). The symbol |& causes asynchronous execution of the preceding command
or pipeline with a two-way pipe established to the parent shell. The standard input and output of the spawned command can be written to
and read from by the parent Shell using the -p option of the special commands read and print described later. The symbol && (||) causes
the list following it to be executed only if the preceding pipeline returns a zero (non-zero) value. An arbitrary number of new-lines may
appear in a list, instead of a semicolon, to delimit a command.

A command is either a simple-command or one of the following. Unless otherwise stated, the value returned by a command is that of the last
simple-command executed in the command.

for identifier [ in word ... ] ;do list ;done
Each time a for command is executed, identifier is set to the next word taken from the in word list. If in word ... is omitted,
then the for command executes the do list once for each positional parameter that is set (see Parameter Substitution ). Execution
ends when there are no more words in the list.

select identifier [ in word ... ] ;do list ;done
A select command prints on standard error (file descriptor 2), the set of words, each preceded by a number. If in word ... is
omitted, then the positional parameters are used instead (see Parameter Substitution below). The PS3 prompt is printed and a line
is read from the standard input. If this line consists of the number of one of the listed words, then the value of the parameter
identifier is set to the word corresponding to this number. If this line is empty the selection list is printed again. Otherwise
the value of the parameter identifier is set to null. The contents of the line read from standard input is saved in the parameter
REPLY. The list is executed for each selection until a break or end-of-file is encountered.

case word in [ [(]pattern [ | pattern ] ... ) list ;; ] ... esac
A case command executes the list associated with the first pattern that matches word. The form of the patterns is the same as that
used for file-name generation (see File Name Generation below).

if list ;then list [ elif list ;then list ] ... [ ;else list ] ;fi
The list following if is executed and, if it returns a zero exit status, the list following the first then is executed. Otherwise,
the list following elif is executed and, if its value is zero, the list following the next then is executed. Failing that, the else
list is executed. If no else list or then list is executed, then the if command returns a zero exit status.

while list ;do list ;done
until list ;do list ;done
A while command repeatedly executes the while list and, if the exit status of the last command in the list is zero, executes the do
list; otherwise the loop terminates. If no commands in the do list are executed, then the while command returns a zero exit status;
until may be used in place of while to negate the loop termination test.

(list) Execute list in a separate environment. Note, that if two adjacent open parentheses are needed for nesting, a space must be
inserted to avoid arithmetic evaluation as described below.

{ list;}
The list is simply executed. Note that unlike the metacharacters ( and ),
{ and } are `reserved words' and must at the beginning of a line or after a ; in order to be recognized.

[[expression]]
Evaluates expression and returns a zero exit status when expression is true. See Conditional Expressions for a description of
expression.

function identifier { list ;}
identifier () { list ;}
Define a function which is referenced by identifier. The body of the function is the list of commands between { and }. (See Func-
tions below).

time pipeline
The pipeline is executed and the elapsed time as well as the user and system time are printed on standard error.

The following reserved words are only recognized as the first word of a command and when not quoted:

if then else elif fi case esac for while until do done { } function select time [[ ]]

Comments
A word beginning with # causes that word and all the following characters up to a new-line to be ignored.

Aliasing
The first word of each command is replaced by the text of an alias if an alias for this word has been defined. The first character of an
alias name can be any non-special printable character, but the rest of the characters must be the same as for a valid identifier. The
replacement string can contain any valid Shell script including the metacharacters listed above. The first word of each command in the
replaced text, other than any that are in the process of being replaced, will be tested for aliases. If the last character of the alias
value is a blank then the word following the alias will also be checked for alias substitution. Aliases can be used to redefine special
builtin commands but cannot be used to redefine the reserved words listed above. Aliases can be created, listed, and exported with the
command and can be removed with the command. Exported aliases remain in effect for scripts invoked by name, but must be reinitialized for
separate invocations of the Shell (See Invocation below).

Aliasing is performed when scripts are read, not while they are executed. Therefore, for an alias to take effect the alias definition com-
mand has to be executed before the command which references the alias is read.

Aliases are frequently used as a short hand for full path names. An option to the aliasing facility allows the value of the alias to be
automatically set to the full pathname of the corresponding command. These aliases are called tracked aliases. The value of a tracked
alias is defined the first time the corresponding command is looked up and becomes undefined each time the PATH variable is reset. These
aliases remain tracked so that the next subsequent reference will redefine the value. Several tracked aliases are compiled into the shell.
The -h option of the command makes each referenced command name into a tracked alias.

The following `exported aliases' are compiled into the shell but can be unset or redefined:
autoload='typeset -fu'
false='let 0'
functions='typeset -f'
hash='alias -t'
history='fc -l'
integer='typeset -i'
nohup='nohup '
r='fc -e -'
true=':'
type='whence -v'

Tilde Substitution
After alias substitution is performed, each word is checked to see if it begins with an unquoted ~. If it does, then the word up to a / is
checked to see if it matches a user name in the file. If a match is found, the ~ and the matched login name is replaced by the login
directory of the matched user. This is called a `tilde substitution'. If no match is found, the original text is left unchanged. A ~ by
itself, or in front of a /, is replaced by the value of the HOME parameter. A ~ followed by a + or - is replaced by $PWD and $OLDPWD
respectively.

In addition, tilde substitution is attempted when the value of a `variable assignment parameter' begins with a ~.

Command Substitution
The standard output from a command enclosed in parentheses preceded by a dollar sign ( $() ) or a pair of grave accents may be used as part
or all of a word; trailing new-lines are removed. In the second (archaic) form, the string between the quotes is processed for special
quoting characters before the command is executed. (See Quoting). The command substitution $(cat file) can be replaced by the equivalent
but faster $(<file). Command substitution of most special commands that do not perform input/output redirection are carried out without
creating a separate process.

An arithmetic expression enclosed in double parenthesis preceded by a dollar sign ( $(()) ) is replaced by the value of the arithmetic
expression within the double parenthesis.

Process Substitution.
This feature is only available on versions of the operating system that support the directory for naming open files. Each command argument
of the form <(list) or >(list) will run process list asynchronously connected to some file in The name of this file will become the argu-
ment to the command. If the form with > is selected then writing on this file will provide input for list. If < is used, then the file
passed as an argument will contain the output of the list process. For example,

paste <(cut -f1 file1) <(cut -f3 file2) | tee >(process1) >(process2)

cuts fields 1 and 3 from the files file1 and file2 respectively, pastes the results together, and sends it to the processes process1 and
process2, as well as putting it onto the standard output. Note that the file, which is passed as an argument to the command, is a system
so programs that expect to on the file will not work.

Parameter Substitution
A parameter is an identifier, one or more digits, or any of the characters *, @, #, ?, -, $, and !. A `named parameter' (a parameter
denoted by an identifier) has a value and zero or more attributes. Named parameters can be assigned values and attributes by using the
special command. The attributes supported by the Shell are described later with the special command. Exported parameters pass values and
attributes to the environment.

The shell supports a one-dimensional array facility. An element of an array parameter is referenced by a subscript. A subscript is
denoted by a [, followed by an `arithmetic expression' (see Arithmetic Evaluation) followed by a ]. To assign values to an array, use set
-A name value ... . The value of all subscripts must be in the range of 0 through 1023. Arrays need not be declared. Any reference to a
named parameter with a valid subscript is legal and an array will be created if necessary. Referencing an array without a subscript is
equivalent to referencing the element zero.

The value of a named parameter may also be assigned by writing:

name=value [ name=value ] ...

If the integer attribute, -i, is set for name the value is subject to arithmetic evaluation as described below.
Positional parameters, parameters denoted by a number, may be assigned values with the special command. Parameter $0 is set from argument
zero when the shell is invoked.
The character $ is used to introduce substitutable parameters.
${parameter}
The shell reads all the characters from ${ to the matching } as part of the same word even if it contains braces or metacharacters.
The value, if any, of the parameter is substituted. The braces are required when parameter is followed by a letter, digit, or
underscore that is not to be interpreted as part of its name or when a named parameter is subscripted. If parameter is one or more
digits then it is a positional parameter. A positional parameter of more than one digit must be enclosed in braces. If parameter
is * or @, then all the positional parameters, starting with $1, are substituted (separated by a field separator character). If an
array identifier with subscript * or @ is used, then the value for each of the elements is substituted (separated by a field separa-
tor character).
${#parameter}
If parameter is * or @, the number of positional parameters is substituted. Otherwise, the length of the value of the parameter is
substituted.
${#identifier[*]}
The number of elements in the array identifier is substituted.
${parameter:-word}
If parameter is set and is non-null then substitute its value; otherwise substitute word.
${parameter:=word}
If parameter is not set or is null then set it to word; the value of the parameter is then substituted. Positional parameters may
not be assigned to in this way.
${parameter:?word}
If parameter is set and is non-null then substitute its value; otherwise, print word and exit from the shell. If word is omitted
then a standard message is printed.
${parameter:+word}
If parameter is set and is non-null then substitute word; otherwise substitute nothing.
${parameter#pattern}
${parameter##pattern}
If the Shell pattern matches the beginning of the value of parameter, then the value of this substitution is the value of the param-
eter with the matched portion deleted; otherwise the value of this parameter is substituted. In the first form the smallest match-
ing pattern is deleted and in the second form the largest matching pattern is deleted.

${parameter%pattern}
${parameter%%pattern}
If the Shell pattern matches the end of the value of parameter, then the value of this substitution is the value of the parameter
with the matched part deleted; otherwise substitute the value of parameter. In the first form the smallest matching pattern is
deleted and in the second form the largest matching pattern is deleted.

In the above, word is not evaluated unless it is to be used as the substituted string, so that, in the following example, is executed only
if d is not set or is null:

echo ${d:-$(pwd)}

If the colon ( : ) is omitted from the above expressions, then the shell only checks whether parameter is set or not.

The following parameters are automatically set by the shell:
# The number of positional parameters in decimal.
- Flags supplied to the shell on invocation or by the command.
? The decimal value returned by the last executed command.
$ The process number of this shell.
_ Initially, the value _ is an absolute pathname of the shell or script being executed as passed in the environment. Subse-
quently it is assigned the last argument of the previous command. This parameter is not set for commands which are asyn-
chronous. file when checking for mail.
! The process number of the last background command invoked.
ERRNO The value of errno as set by the most recently failed system call. This value is system dependent and is intended for
debugging purposes.
LINENO The line number of the current line within the script or function being executed.
OLDPWD The previous working directory set by the command.
OPTARG The value of the last option argument processed by the special command.
OPTIND The index of the last option argument processed by the special command.
PPID The process number of the parent of the shell.
PWD The present working directory set by the command.
RANDOM Each time this parameter is referenced, a random integer, uniformly distributed between 0 and 32767, is generated. The
sequence of random numbers can be initialized by assigning a numeric value to RANDOM.
REPLY This parameter is set by the select statement and by the read special command when no arguments are supplied.
SECONDS Each time this parameter is referenced, the number of seconds since shell invocation is returned. If this parameter is
assigned a value, then the value returned upon reference will be the value that was assigned plus the number of seconds
since the assignment.

The following parameters are used by the shell:
CDPATH The search path for the command.
COLUMNS
If this variable is set, the value is used to define the width of the edit window for the shell edit modes and for printing
select lists.
EDITOR If the value of this variable ends in emacs, gmacs, or vi and the VISUAL variable is not set, then the corresponding option
(see Special Command set below) will be turned on.
ENV If this parameter is set, then parameter substitution is performed on the value to generate the pathname of the script that
will be executed when the shell is invoked. (See Invocation below.) This file is typically used for alias and function def-
initions.
FCEDIT The default editor name for the fc command.
FPATH The search path for function definitions. This path is searched when a function with the -u attribute is referenced and when
a command is not found. If an executable file is found, then it is read and executed in the current environment.
IFS Internal field separators, normally space, tab, and new-line that is used to separate command words which result from command
or parameter substitution and for separating words with the special command read. The first character of the IFS parameter
is used to separate arguments for the $* substitution (See Quoting below).
HISTFILE
If this parameter is set when the shell is invoked, then the value is the pathname of the file that will be used to store the
command history. (See Command re-entry below.)
HISTSIZE
If this parameter is set when the shell is invoked, then the number of previously entered commands that are accessible by
this shell will be greater than or equal to this number. The default is 128.
HOME The default argument (home directory) for the cd command.
LINES If this variable is set, the value is used to determine the column length for printing select lists. Select lists will print
vertically until about two-thirds of LINES lines are filled.
LOGNAME
The name of the user's login account, corresponding to the login name in the user database.
MAIL If this parameter is set to the name of a mail file and the MAILPATH parameter is not set, then the shell informs the user of
arrival of mail in the specified file.
MAILCHECK
This variable specifies how often (in seconds) the shell will check for changes in the modification time of any of the files
specified by the MAILPATH or MAIL parameters. The default value is 600 seconds. When the time has elapsed the shell will
check before issuing the next prompt.
MAILPATH
A colon ( : ) separated list of file names. If this parameter is set then the shell informs the user of any modifications to
the specified files that have occurred within the last MAILCHECK seconds. Each file name can be followed by a ? and a mes-
sage that will be printed. The message will undergo parameter substitution with the parameter, $_ defined as the name of the
file that has changed. The default message is you have mail in $_.
PATH The search path for commands (see Execution below). The user may not change PATH if executing under (except in .profile ).
PS1 The value of this parameter is expanded for parameter substitution to define the primary prompt string which by default is
``$ ''. The character ! in the primary prompt string is replaced by the command number (see Command Re-entry below).
PS2 Secondary prompt string, by default ``> ''.
PS3 Selection prompt string used within a select loop, by default ``#? ''.
PS4 The value of this parameter is expanded for parameter substitution and precedes each line of an execution trace. If omitted,
the execution trace prompt is ``+ ''.
SHELL The pathname of the shell is kept in the environment. At invocation, if the basename of this variable matches the pattern
*r*sh, then the shell becomes restricted.
TMOUT If set to a value greater than zero, the shell will terminate if a command is not entered within the prescribed number of
seconds after issuing the PS1 prompt. (Note that the shell can be compiled with a maximum bound for this value which cannot
be exceeded.)
VISUAL If the value of this variable ends in emacs, gmacs, or vi then the corresponding option (see Special Command set below) will
be turned on.

The shell gives default values to PATH, PS1, PS2, MAILCHECK, TMOUT and IFS, while HOME, SHELL ENV and MAIL are not set at all by the shell
(although HOME is set by login(1)). On some systems MAIL and SHELL are also set by login(1)).

Blank Interpretation.
After parameter and command substitution, the results of substitutions are scanned for the field separator characters ( those found in IFS
) and split into distinct arguments where such characters are found. Explicit null arguments ("" or (fm(fm) are retained. Implicit null
arguments (those resulting from parameters that have no values) are removed.

File Name Generation.
Following substitution, each command word is scanned for the characters *, ?, and [ unless the -f option has been set. If one of these
characters appears then the word is regarded as a pattern. The word is replaced with lexicographically sorted file names that match the
pattern. If no file name is found that matches the pattern, then the word is left unchanged. When a pattern is used for file name genera-
tion, the character . at the start of a file name or immediately following a /, as well as the character / itself, must be matched explic-
itly. In other instances of pattern matching the / and . are not treated specially.

* Matches any string, including the null string.
? Matches any single character.
[...] Matches any one of the enclosed characters. A pair of characters separated by - matches any character lexically between the
pair, inclusive. If the first character following the opening "[ " is a "! " then any character not enclosed is matched. A
- can be included in the character set by putting it as the first or last character.
A pattern-list is a list of one or more patterns separated by each other with a |. Composite patterns can be formed with one or more of
the following:
?(pattern-list)
Optionally matches any one of the given patterns.
*(pattern-list)
Matches zero or more occurrences of the given patterns.
+(pattern-list)
Matches one or more occurrences of the given patterns.
@(pattern-list)
Matches exactly one of the given patterns.
!(pattern-list)
Matches anything, except one of the given patterns.

Quoting.
Each of the metacharacters listed above (See Definitions above) has a special meaning to the shell and causes termination of a word unless
quoted. A character may be quoted (that is, made to stand for itself) by preceding it with a . The pair
ew-line is ignored. All char-
acters enclosed between a pair of single quote marks (''), are quoted. A single quote cannot appear within single quotes. Inside double
quote marks (""), parameter and command substitution occurs and quotes the characters , `, ", and $. The meaning of $* and $@ is iden-
tical when not quoted or when used as a parameter assignment value or as a file name. However, when used as a command argument, $* is
equivalent to "$1d$2d...", where d is the first character of the IFS parameter, whereas $@ is equivalent to $1 "$2" .... Inside grave
quote marks quotes the characters , and

If the grave quotes occur within double quotes then also quotes the character ".

The special meaning of reserved words or aliases can be removed by quoting any character of the reserved word. The recognition of function
names or special command names listed below cannot be altered by quoting them.

Arithmetic Evaluation.
An ability to perform integer arithmetic is provided with the special command let. Evaluations are performed using long arithmetic. Con-
stants are of the form [base#]n where base is a decimal number between two and thirty-six representing the arithmetic base and n is a num-
ber in that base. If base is omitted then base 10 is used.

An arithmetic expression uses the same syntax, precedence, and associativity of expression of the C language. All the integral operators,
other than ++, --, ?:, and , are supported. Named parameters can be referenced by name within an arithmetic expression without using the
parameter substitution syntax. When a named parameter is referenced, its value is evaluated as an arithmetic expression.

An internal integer representation of a named parameter can be specified with the -i option of the typeset special command. Arithmetic
evaluation is performed on the value of each assignment to a named parameter with the -i attribute. If you do not specify an arithmetic
base, the first assignment to the parameter determines the arithmetic base. This base is used when parameter substitution occurs.

Since many of the arithmetic operators require quoting, an alternative form of the let command is provided. For any command which begins
with a ((, all the characters until a matching )) are treated as a quoted expression. More precisely, ((...)) is equivalent to let "...".

Prompting.
When used interactively, the shell prompts with the value of PS1 before reading a command. If at any time a new-line is typed and further
input is needed to complete a command, then the secondary prompt (that is, the value of PS2) is issued.

Conditional Expressions.
A conditional expression is used with the [[ compound command to test attributes of files and to compare strings. Word splitting and file
name generation are not performed on the words between [[ and ]]. Each expression can be constructed from one or more of the following
unary or binary expressions:
-a file
True, if file exists.
-b file
True, if file exists and is a block special file.
-c file
True, if file exists and is a character special file.
-d file
True, if file exists and is a directory.
-f file
True, if file exists and is an ordinary file.
-g file
True, if file exists and is has its setgid bit set.
-k file
True, if file exists and is has its sticky bit set.
-n string
True, if length of string is non-zero.
-o option
True, if option named option is on.
-p file
True, if file exists and is a fifo special file or a pipe.
-r file
True, if file exists and is readable by current process.
-s file
True, if file exists and has size greater than zero.
-t fildes
True, if file descriptor number fildes is open and associated with a terminal device.
-u file
True, if file exists and is has its setuid bit set.
-w file
True, if file exists and is writable by current process.
-x file
True, if file exists and is executable by current process. If file exists and is a directory, then the current process has permis-
sion to search in the directory.
-z string
True, if length of string is zero.
-L file
True, if file exists and is a symbolic link.
-O file
True, if file exists and is owned by the effective user id of this process.
-G file
True, if file exists and its group matches the effective group id of this process.
-S file
True, if file exists and is a socket.
file1 -nt file2
True, if file1 exists and is newer than file2.
file1 -ot file2
True, if file1 exists and is older than file2.
file1 -ef file2
True, if file1 and file2 exist and refer to the same file.
string = pattern
True, if string matches pattern.
string != pattern
True, if string does not match pattern.
string1 < string2
True, if string1 comes before string2 based on ASCII value of their characters.
string1 > string2
True, if string1 comes after string2 based on ASCII value of their characters.
exp1 -eq exp2
True, if exp1 is equal to exp2.
exp1 -ne exp2
True, if exp1 is not equal to exp2.
exp1 -lt exp2
True, if exp1 is less than exp2.
exp1 -gt exp2
True, if exp1 is greater than exp2.
exp1 -le exp2
True, if exp1 is less than or equal to exp2.
exp1 -ge exp2
True, if exp1 is greater than or equal to exp2.

In each of the above expressions, if file is of the form /dev/fd/n, where n is an integer, then the test applied to the open file whose
descriptor number is n.

A compound expression can be constructed from these primitives by using any of the following, listed in decreasing order of precedence.
(expression)
True, if expression is true. Used to group expressions.
! expression
True if expression is false.
expression1 && expression2
True, if expression1 and expression2 are both true.
expression1 || expression2
True, if either expression1 or expression2 is true.

Input/output.
Before a command is executed, its input and output may be redirected using a special notation interpreted by the shell. The following may
appear anywhere in a simple-command or may precede or follow a command and are not passed on to the invoked command. Command and parameter
substitution occurs before word or digit is used except as noted below. File name generation occurs only if the pattern matches a single
file and blank interpretation is not performed.

<word Use file word as standard input (file descriptor 0).

>word Use file word as standard output (file descriptor 1). If the file does not exist then it is created. If the file exists,
and the noclobber option is on, this causes an error; otherwise, it is truncated to zero length.

>|word Sames as >, except that it overrides the noclobber option.

>>word Use file word as standard output. If the file exists then output is appended to it (by first seeking to the end-of-file);
otherwise, the file is created.

<>word Open file word for reading and writing as standard input.

<<[-]word The shell input is read up to a line that is the same as word, or to an end-of-file. No parameter substitution, command sub-
stitution or file name generation is performed on word. The resulting document, called a here-document, becomes the standard
input. If any character of word is quoted, then no interpretation is placed upon the characters of the document; otherwise,
parameter and command substitution occurs,
ew-line is ignored, and must be used to quote the characters , $, and the
first character of word. If - is appended to <<, then all leading tabs are stripped from word and from the document.

<&digit The standard input is duplicated from file descriptor digit (see dup(2)). Similarly for the standard output using >& digit.

<&- The standard input is closed. Similarly for the standard output using >&-.

<&p The input from the co-process is moved to standard input.

>&p The output to the co-process is moved to standard output.

If one of the above is preceded by a digit, then the file descriptor number referred to is that specified by the digit (instead of the
default 0 or 1). For example:

... 2>&1

means file descriptor 2 is to be opened for writing as a duplicate of file descriptor 1.

The order in which redirections are specified is significant. The shell evaluates each redirection in terms of the (file descriptor, file)
association at the time of evaluation. For example:

... 1>fname 2>&1

first associates file descriptor 1 with file fname. It then associates file descriptor 2 with the file associated with file descriptor 1
(that is, fname). If the order of redirections were reversed, file descriptor 2 would be associated with the terminal (assuming file
descriptor 1 had been) and then file descriptor 1 would be associated with file fname.

If a command is followed by & and job control is not active, then the default standard input for the command is the empty file /dev/null.
Otherwise, the environment for the execution of a command contains the file descriptors of the invoking shell as modified by input/output
specifications.

Environment.
The environment (see environ(7)) is a list of name-value pairs that is passed to an executed program in the same way as a normal argument
list. The names must be identifiers and the values are character strings. The shell interacts with the environment in several ways. On
invocation, the shell scans the environment and creates a parameter for each name found, giving it the corresponding value and marking it
export . Executed commands inherit the environment. If the user modifies the values of these parameters or creates new ones, using the
export or typeset -x commands they become part of the environment. The environment seen by any executed command is thus composed of any
name-value pairs originally inherited by the shell, whose values may be modified by the current shell, plus any additions which must be
noted in export or typeset -x commands.

The environment for any simple-command or function may be augmented by prefixing it with one or more parameter assignments. A parameter
assignment argument is a word of the form identifier=value. Thus:

TERM=450 cmd args and
(export TERM; TERM=450; cmd args)

are equivalent (as far as the above execution of cmd is concerned).

If the -k flag is set, all parameter assignment arguments are placed in the environment, even if they occur after the command name. The
following first prints a=b c and then c:

echo a=b c
set -k
echo a=b c
This feature is intended for use with scripts written for early versions of the shell and its use in new scripts is strongly discouraged.
It is likely to disappear someday.

Functions.
The function reserved word, described in the Commands section above, is used to define shell functions. Shell functions are read in and
stored internally. Alias names are resolved when the function is read. Functions are executed like commands with the arguments passed as
positional parameters. (See Execution below).

Functions execute in the same process as the caller and share all files and present working directory with the caller. Traps caught by the
caller are reset to their default action inside the function. A trap condition that is not caught or ignored by the function causes the
function to terminate and the condition to be passed on to the caller. A trap on EXIT set inside a function is executed after the function
completes in the environment of the caller. Ordinarily, variables are shared between the calling program and the function. However, the
typeset special command used within a function defines local variables whose scope includes the current function and all functions it
calls.

The special command return is used to return from function calls. Errors within functions return control to the caller.

Function identifiers can be listed with the -f or +f option of the typeset special command. The text of functions will also be listed with
-f. Function can be undefined with the -f option of the unset special command.

Ordinarily, functions are unset when the shell executes a shell script. The -xf option of the typeset command allows a function to be
exported to scripts that are executed without a separate invocation of the shell. Functions that need to be defined across separate invo-
cations of the shell should be specified in the ENV file with the -xf option of typeset

Jobs.
If the monitor option of the set command is turned on, an interactive shell associates a job with each pipeline. It keeps a table of cur-
rent jobs, printed by the jobs command, and assigns them small integer numbers. When a job is started asynchronously with &, the shell
prints a line which looks like:

[1] 1234

indicating that the job which was started asynchronously was job number 1 and had one (top-level) process, whose process id was 1234.

This paragraph and the next require features that are not in all versions of the UNIX operating system and may not apply. If you are run-
ning a job and wish to do something else you may hit the key ^Z (control-Z) which sends a STOP signal to the current job. The shell will
then normally indicate that the job has been `Stopped', and print another prompt. You can then manipulate the state of this job, putting
it in the background with the bg command, or run some other commands and then eventually bring the job back into the foreground with the
foreground command fg. A ^Z takes effect immediately and is like an interrupt in that pending output and unread input are discarded when
it is typed.

A job being run in the background will stop if it tries to read from the terminal. Background jobs are normally allowed to produce output,
but this can be disabled by giving the command ``stty tostop''. If you set this tty option, then background jobs will stop when they try
to produce output like they do when they try to read input.

There are several ways to refer to jobs in the shell. A job can be referred to by the process id of any process of the job or by one of
the following:
%number
The job with the given number.
%string
Any job whose command line begins with string.
%?string
Any job whose command line contains string.
%% Current job.
%+ Equivalent to %%.
%- Previous job.

This shell learns immediately whenever a process changes state. It normally informs you whenever a job becomes blocked so that no further
progress is possible, but only just before it prints a prompt. This is done so that it does not otherwise disturb your work.

When the monitor mode is on, each background job that completes triggers any trap set for CHLD.

When you try to leave the shell while jobs are running or stopped, you will be warned that `You have stopped(running) jobs.' You may use
the jobs command to see what they are. If you do this or immediately try to exit again, the shell will not warn you a second time, and the
stopped jobs will be terminated.

Signals.
The INT and QUIT signals for an invoked command are ignored if the command is followed by & and job monitor option is not active. Other-
wise, signals have the values inherited by the shell from its parent (but see also the trap command below).

Execution.
Each time a command is executed, the above substitutions are carried out. If the command name matches one of the Special Commands listed
below, it is executed within the current shell process. Next, the command name is checked to see if it matches one of the user defined
functions. If it does, the positional parameters are saved and then reset to the arguments of the function call. When the function com-
pletes or issues a return, the positional parameter list is restored and any trap set on EXIT within the function is executed. The value
of a function is the value of the last command executed. A function is also executed in the current shell process. If a command name is
not a special command or a user defined function, a process is created and an attempt is made to execute the command via exec(2).

The shell parameter PATH defines the search path for the directory containing the command. Alternative directory names are separated by a
colon (:). The default path is /bin:/usr/bin: (specifying /bin, /usr/bin, and the current directory in that order). The current directory
can be specified by two or more adjacent colons, or by a colon at the beginning or end of the path list. If the command name contains a /
then the search path is not used. Otherwise, each directory in the path is searched for an executable file. If the file has execute per-
mission but is not a directory or an a.out file, it is assumed to be a file containing shell commands. A sub-shell is spawned to read it.
All non-exported aliases, functions, and named parameters are removed in this case. If the shell command file doesn't have read permis-
sion, or if the setuid and/or setgid bits are set on the file, then the shell executes an agent whose job it is to set up the permissions
and execute the shell with the shell command file passed down as an open file. A parenthesized command is executed in a sub-shell without
removing non-exported quantities.

Command Re-entry.
The text of the last HISTSIZE (default 128) commands entered from a terminal device is saved in a history file. The file $HOME/.sh_history
is used if the HISTFILE variable is not set or is not writable. A shell can access the commands of all interactive shells which use the
same named HISTFILE. The special command fc is used to list or edit a portion of this file. The portion of the file to be edited or
listed can be selected by number or by giving the first character or characters of the command. A single command or range of commands can
be specified. If you do not specify an editor program as an argument to fc then the value of the parameter FCEDIT is used. If FCEDIT is
not defined then /bin/ed is used. The edited command(s) is printed and re-executed upon leaving the editor. The editor name - is used to
skip the editing phase and to re-execute the command. In this case a substitution parameter of the form old=new can be used to modify the
command before execution. For example, if r is aliased to 'fc -e -' then typing `r bad=good c' will re-execute the most recent command
which starts with the letter c, replacing the first occurrence of the string bad with the string good.

In-line Editing Options
Normally, each command line entered from a terminal device is simply typed followed by a new-line (`RETURN' or `LINE FEED'). If either the
emacs, gmacs, or vi option is active, the user can edit the command line. To be in either of these edit modes set the corresponding
option. An editing option is automatically selected each time the VISUAL or EDITOR variable is assigned a value ending in either of these
option names.

The editing features require that the user's terminal accept `RETURN' as carriage return without line feed and that a space (` ') must
overwrite the current character on the screen. ADM terminal users should set the "space - advance" switch to `space'. Hewlett-Packard
series 2621 terminal users should set the straps to `bcGHxZ etX'.

The editing modes implement a concept where the user is looking through a window at the current line. The window width is the value of
COLUMNS if it is defined, otherwise 80. If the line is longer than the window width minus two, a mark is displayed at the end of the win-
dow to notify the user. As the cursor moves and reaches the window boundaries the window will be centered about the cursor. The mark is a
> (<, *) if the line extends on the right (left, both) side(s) of the window.

The search commands in each edit mode provide access to the history file. Only strings are matched, not patterns, although a leading ^ in
the string restricts the match to begin at the first character in the line.

Emacs Editing Mode
This mode is entered by enabling either the emacs or gmacs option. The only difference between these two modes is the way they handle ^T.
To edit, the user moves the cursor to the point needing correction and then inserts or deletes characters or words as needed. All the
editing commands are control characters or escape sequences. The notation for control characters is caret ( ^ ) followed by the character.
For example, ^F is the notation for control F. This is entered by depressing `f' while holding down the `CTRL' (control) key. The `SHIFT'
key is not depressed. (The notation ^? indicates the DEL (delete) key.)

The notation for escape sequences is M- followed by a character. For example, M-f (pronounced Meta f) is entered by depressing ESC (ascii
033) followed by `f'. (M-F would be the notation for ESC followed by `SHIFT' (capital) `F'.)

All edit commands operate from any place on the line (not just at the beginning). Neither the "RETURN" nor the "LINE FEED" key is entered
after edit commands except when noted.

^F Move cursor forward (right) one character.
M-f Move cursor forward one word. (The emacs editor's idea of a word is a string of characters consisting of only letters, digits
and underscores.)
^B Move cursor backward (left) one character.
M-b Move cursor backward one word.
^A Move cursor to start of line.
^E Move cursor to end of line.
^]char Move cursor forward to character char on current line.
M-^]char Move cursor back to character char on current line.
^X^X Interchange the cursor and mark.
erase (User defined erase character as defined by the stty(1) command, usually ^H or #.) Delete previous character.
^D Delete current character.
M-d Delete current word.
M-^H (Meta-backspace) Delete previous word.
M-h Delete previous word.
M-^? (Meta-DEL) Delete previous word (if your interrupt character is ^? (DEL, the default) then this command will not work).
^T Transpose current character with next character in emacs mode. Transpose two previous characters in gmacs mode.
^C Capitalize current character.
M-c Capitalize current word.
M-l Change the current word to lower case.
^K Delete from the cursor to the end of the line. If preceded by a numerical parameter whose value is less than the current cursor
position, then delete from given position up to the cursor. If preceded by a numerical parameter whose value is greater than the
current cursor position, then delete from cursor up to given cursor position.
^W Kill from the cursor to the mark.
M-p Push the region from the cursor to the mark on the stack.
kill (User defined kill character as defined by the stty command, usually ^G or @.) Kill the entire current line. If two kill char-
acters are entered in succession, all kill characters from then on cause a line feed (useful when using paper terminals).
^Y Restore last item removed from line. (Yank item back to the line.)
^L Line feed and print current line.
^@ (Null character) Set mark.
M-space (Meta space) Set mark.
^J (New line) Execute the current line.
^M (Return) Execute the current line.
eof End-of-file character, normally ^D, is processed as an End-of-file only if the current line is null.
^P Fetch previous command. Each time ^P is entered the previous command back in time is accessed. Moves back one line when not on
the first line of a multi-line command.
M-< Fetch the least recent (oldest) history line.
M-> Fetch the most recent (youngest) history line.
^N Fetch next command line. Each time ^N is entered the next command line forward in time is accessed.
^Rstring Reverse search history for a previous command line containing string. If a parameter of zero is given, the search is forward.
String is terminated by a "RETURN" or "NEW LINE". If string is preceded by a ^, the matched line must begin with string. If
string is omitted, then the next command line containing the most recent string is accessed. In this case a parameter of zero
reverses the direction of the search.
^O Operate - Execute the current line and fetch the next line relative to current line from the history file.
M-digits (Escape) Define numeric parameter, the digits are taken as a parameter to the next command. The commands that accept a parameter
are ^F, ^B, erase, ^C, ^D, ^K, ^R, ^P, ^N, ^], M-., M-^], M-_, M-b, M-c, M-d, M-f, M-h M-l and M-^H.
M-letter Soft-key - Your alias list is searched for an alias by the name _letter and if an alias of this name is defined, its value will
be inserted on the input queue. The letter must not be one of the above meta-functions. M-]letter Soft-key - Your alias list is
searched for an alias by the name __letter and if an alias of this name is defined, its value will be inserted on the input
queue. The can be used to program functions keys on many terminals.
M-. The last word of the previous command is inserted on the line. If preceded by a numeric parameter, the value of this parameter
determines which word to insert rather than the last word.
M-_ Same as M-..
M-* Attempt file name generation on the current word. An asterisk is appended if the word doesn't match any file or contain any spe-
cial pattern characters.
M-ESC File name completion. Replaces the current word with the longest common prefix of all filenames matching the current word with
an asterisk appended. If the match is unique, a / is appended if the file is a directory and a space is appended if the file is
not a directory.
M-= List files matching current word pattern if an asterisk were appended.
^U Multiply parameter of next command by 4.
Escape next character. Editing characters, the user's erase, kill and interrupt (normally ^?) characters may be entered in a
command line or in a search string if preceded by a . The removes the next character's editing features (if any).
^V Display version of the shell.
M-Inserta at the beginning of the line and execute it. This causes a comment to be inserted in the history file.

Vi Editing Mode
There are two typing modes. Initially, when you enter a command you are in the input mode. To edit, the user enters control mode by typ-
ing ESC ( 033 ) and moves the cursor to the point needing correction and then inserts or deletes characters or words as needed. Most con-
trol commands accept an optional repeat count prior to the command.

When in vi mode on most systems, canonical processing is initially enabled and the command will be echoed again if the speed is 1200 baud
or greater and it contains any control characters or less than one second has elapsed since the prompt was printed. The ESC character ter-
minates canonical processing for the remainder of the command and the user can then modify the command line. This scheme has the advan-
tages of canonical processing with the type-ahead echoing of raw mode.

If the option viraw is also set, the terminal will always have canonical processing disabled. This mode is implicit for systems that do
not support two alternate end of line delimiters, and may be helpful for certain terminals.

Input Edit Commands
By default the editor is in input mode.
erase (User defined erase character as defined by the stty command, usually ^H or #.) Delete previous character.
^W Delete the previous blank separated word.
^D Terminate the shell.
^V Escape next character. Editing characters, the user's erase or kill characters may be entered in a command line or in a
search string if preceded by a ^V. The ^V removes the next character's editing features (if any).
Escape the next erase or kill character.
Motion Edit Commands
These commands will move the cursor.
[count]l Cursor forward (right) one character.
[count]w Cursor forward one alpha-numeric word.
[count]W Cursor to the beginning of the next word that follows a blank.
[count]e Cursor to end of word.
[count]E Cursor to end of the current blank delimited word.
[count]h Cursor backward (left) one character.
[count]b Cursor backward one word.
[count]B Cursor to preceding blank separated word.
[count]| Cursor to column count.
[count]fc Find the next character c in the current line.
[count]Fc Find the previous character c in the current line.
[count]tc Equivalent to f followed by h.
[count]Tc Equivalent to F followed by l.
[count]; Repeats count times, the last single character find command, f, F, t, or T.
[count], Reverses the last single character find command count times.
0 Cursor to start of line.
^ Cursor to first non-blank character in line.
$ Cursor to end of line.
Search Edit Commands
These commands access your command history.
[count]k Fetch previous command. Each time k is entered the previous command back in time is accessed.
[count]- Equivalent to k.
[count]j Fetch next command. Each time j is entered the next command forward in time is accessed.
[count]+ Equivalent to j.
[count]G The command number count is fetched. The default is the least recent history command.
/string Search backward through history for a previous command containing string. String is terminated by a "RETURN" or
"NEW LINE". If string is preceded by a ^, the matched line must begin with string. If string is null the previous string
will be used.
?string Same as / except that search will be in the forward direction.
n Search for next match of the last pattern to / or ? commands.
N Search for next match of the last pattern to / or ?, but in reverse direction. Search history for the string entered by
the previous / command.
Text Modification Edit Commands
These commands will modify the line.
a Enter input mode and enter text after the current character.
A Append text to the end of the line. Equivalent to $a.
[count]cmotion
c[count]motion
Delete current character through the character that motion would move the cursor to and enter input mode. If motion is c,
the entire line will be deleted and input mode entered.
C Delete the current character through the end of line and enter input mode. Equivalent to c$.
S Equivalent to cc.
D Delete the current character through the end of line. Equivalent to d$.
[count]dmotion
d[count]motion
Delete current character through the character that motion would move to. If motion is d , the entire line will be
deleted.
i Enter input mode and insert text before the current character.
I Insert text before the beginning of the line. Equivalent to 0i.
[count]P Place the previous text modification before the cursor.
[count]p Place the previous text modification after the cursor.
R Enter input mode and replace characters on the screen with characters you type overlay fashion.
[count]rc Replace the count character(s) starting at the current cursor position with c, and advance the cursor.
[count]x Delete current character.
[count]X Delete preceding character.
[count]. Repeat the previous text modification command.
[count]~ Invert the case of the count character(s) starting at the current cursor position and advance the cursor.
[count]_ Causes the count word of the previous command to be appended and input mode entered. The last word is used if count is
omitted.
* Causes an * to be appended to the current word and file name generation attempted. If no match is found, it rings the
bell. Otherwise, the word is replaced by the matching pattern and input mode is entered.
Filename completion. Replaces the current word with the longest common prefix of all filenames matching the current word
with an asterisk appended. If the match is unique, a / is appended if the file is a directory and a space is appended if
the file is not a directory.
Other Edit Commands
Miscellaneous commands.
[count]ymotion
y[count]motion
Yank current character through character that motion would move the cursor to and puts them into the delete buffer. The
text and cursor are unchanged.
Y Yanks from current position to end of line. Equivalent to y$.
u Undo the last text modifying command.
U Undo all the text modifying commands performed on the line.
[count]v Returns the command fc -e ${VISUAL:-${EDITOR:-vi}} count in the input buffer. If count is omitted, then the current line
is used.
^L Line feed and print current line. Has effect only in control mode.
^J (New line) Execute the current line, regardless of mode.
^M (Return) Execute the current line, regardless of mode.
Sends the line after
inserting a in front of the line. Useful for causing the current line to be inserted in the history without being exe-
cuted.
= List the file names that match the current word if an asterisk were appended it.
@letter Your alias list is searched for an alias by the name _letter and if an alias of this name is defined, its value will be
inserted on the input queue for processing.

Special Commands.
The following simple-commands are executed in the shell process. Input/Output redirection is permitted. Unless otherwise indicated, the
output is written on file descriptor 1 and the exit status, when there is no syntax error, is zero. Commands that are preceded by one or
two - are treated specially in the following ways:
1. Parameter assignment lists preceding the command remain in effect when the command completes.
2. I/O redirections are processed after parameter assignments.
3. Errors cause a script that contains them to abort.
4. Words, following a command preceded by -- that are in the format of a parameter assignment, are expanded with the same rules as a
parameter assignment. This means that tilde substitution is performed after the = sign and word splitting and file name generation
are not performed.

- : [ arg ... ]
The command only expands parameters.

- . file [ arg ... ]
Read the complete file then execute the commands. The commands are executed in the current Shell environment. The search path
specified by PATH is used to find the directory containing file. If any arguments arg are given, they become the positional parame-
ters. Otherwise the positional parameters are unchanged. The exit status is the exit status of the last command executed.

-- alias [ -tx ] [ name[ =value ] ] ...
Alias with no arguments prints the list of aliases in the form name=value on standard output. An alias is defined for each name
whose value is given. A trailing space in value causes the next word to be checked for alias substitution. The -t flag is used to
set and list tracked aliases. The value of a tracked alias is the full pathname corresponding to the given name. The value becomes
undefined when the value of PATH is reset but the aliases remained tracked. Without the -t flag, for each name in the argument list
for which no value is given, the name and value of the alias is printed. The -x flag is used to set or print exported aliases. An
exported alias is defined for scripts invoked by name. The exit status is non-zero if a name is given, but no value, for which no
alias has been defined.

bg [ job... ]
This command is only on systems that support job control. Puts each specified job into the background. The current job is put in
the background if job is not specified. See Jobs for a description of the format of job.

- break [ n ]
Exit from the enclosing for while until or select loop, if any. If n is specified then break n levels.

- continue [ n ]
Resume the next iteration of the enclosing for while until or select loop. If n is specified then resume at the n-th enclosing
loop.

cd [ arg ]
cd old new
This command can be in either of two forms. In the first form it changes the current directory to arg. If arg is - the directory
is changed to the previous directory. The shell parameter HOME is the default arg. The parameter PWD is set to the current direc-
tory. The shell parameter CDPATH defines the search path for the directory containing arg. Alternative directory names are sepa-
rated by a colon (:). The default path is <null> (specifying the current directory). Note that the current directory is specified
by a null path name, which can appear immediately after the equal sign or between the colon delimiters anywhere else in the path
list. If arg begins with a / then the search path is not used. Otherwise, each directory in the path is searched for arg.

The second form of cd substitutes the string new for the string old in the current directory name, PWD and tries to change to this new
directory.

The cd command may not be executed by

echo [ arg ... ]
See echo(1) for usage and description.

- eval [ arg ... ]
The arguments are read as input to the shell and the resulting command(s) executed.

- exec [ arg ... ]
If arg is given, the command specified by the arguments is executed in place of this shell without creating a new process.
Input/output arguments may appear and affect the current process. If no arguments are given the effect of this command is to modify
file descriptors as prescribed by the input/output redirection list. In this case, any file descriptor numbers greater than 2 that
are opened with this mechanism are closed when invoking another program.

- exit [ n ]
Causes the shell to exit with the exit status specified by n. If n is omitted then the exit status is that of the last command exe-
cuted. An end-of-file will also cause the shell to exit except for a shell which has the ignoreeof option (See set below) turned
on.

-- export [ name[=value] ] ...
The given names are marked for automatic export to the environment of subsequently-executed commands.

fc [ -e ename ] [ -nlr ] [ first [ last ] ]
fc -e - [ old=new ] [ command ]
In the first form, a range of commands from first to last is selected from the last HISTSIZE commands that were typed at the termi-
nal. The arguments first and last may be specified as a number or as a string. A string is used to locate the most recent command
starting with the given string. A negative number is used as an offset to the current command number. If the flag -l, is selected,
the commands are listed on standard output. Otherwise, the editor program ename is invoked on a file containing these keyboard com-
mands. If ename is not supplied, then the value of the parameter FCEDIT (default /bin/ed) is used as the editor. When editing is
complete, the edited command(s) is executed. If last is not specified then it will be set to first. If first is not specified the
default is the previous command for editing and -16 for listing. The flag -r reverses the order of the commands and the flag -n
suppresses command numbers when listing. In the second form the command is re-executed after the substitution old=new is performed.

fg [ job... ]
This command is only on systems that support job control. Each job specified is brought to the foreground. Otherwise, the current
job is brought into the foreground. See Jobs for a description of the format of job.

getopts optstring name [ arg ... ]
Checks arg for legal options. If arg is omitted, the positional parameters are used. An option argument begins with a + or a -.
An option not beginning with + or - or the argument -- ends the options. optstring contains the letters that getopts recognizes.
If a letter is followed by a :, that option is expected to have an argument. The options can be separated from the argument by
blanks.

getopts places the next option letter it finds inside variable name each time it is invoked with a + prepended when arg begins with a +.
The index of the next arg is stored in OPTIND. The option argument, if any, gets stored in OPTARG.

A leading : in optstring causes getopts to store the letter of an invalid option in OPTARG, and to set name to ? for an unknown option and
to : when a required option is missing. Otherwise, getopts prints an error message. The exit status is non-zero when there are no more
options.

jobs [ -lnp ] [ job ... ]
Lists information about each given job; or all active jobs if job is omitted. The -l flag lists process ids in addition to the nor-
mal information. The -n flag only displays jobs that have stopped or exited since last notified. The -p flag causes only the
process group to be listed. See Jobs for a description of the format of job.

kill [ -sig ] job ...
kill -l
Sends either the TERM (terminate) signal or the specified signal to the specified jobs or processes. Signals are either given by
number or by names (as given in /usr/include/signal.h, stripped of the prefix ``SIG''). If the signal being sent is TERM (termi-
nate) or HUP (hangup), then the job or process will be sent a CONT (continue) signal if it is stopped. The argument job can the
process id of a process that is not a member of one of the active jobs. See Jobs for a description of the format of job. In the
second form, kill -l, the signal numbers and names are listed.

let arg ...
Each arg is a separate arithmetic expression to be evaluated. See Arithmetic Evaluation above, for a description of arithmetic
expression evaluation.

The exit status is 0 if the value of the last expression is non-zero, and 1 otherwise.

- newgrp [ arg ... ]
Equivalent to exec /bin/newgrp arg ....

print [ -Rnprsu[n ] ] [ arg ... ]
The shell output mechanism. With no flags or with flag - or -- the arguments are printed on standard output as described by
echo(1). In raw mode, -R or -r, the escape conventions of echo are ignored. The -R option will print all subsequent arguments and
options other than -n. The -p option causes the arguments to be written onto the pipe of the process spawned with |& instead of
standard output. The -s option causes the arguments to be written onto the history file instead of standard output. The -u flag
can be used to specify a one digit file descriptor unit number n on which the output will be placed. The default is 1. If the flag
-n is used, no new-line is added to the output.

pwd Equivalent to print -r - $PWD

read [ -prsu[ n ] ] [ name?prompt ] [ name ... ]
The shell input mechanism. One line is read and is broken up into fields using the characters in IFS as separators. In raw mode,
-r, a at the end of a line does not signify line continuation. The first field is assigned to the first name, the second field to
the second name, etc., with leftover fields assigned to the last name. The -p option causes the input line to be taken from the
input pipe of a process spawned by the shell using |&. If the -s flag is present, the input will be saved as a command in the his-
tory file. The flag -u can be used to specify a one digit file descriptor unit to read from. The file descriptor can be opened
with the exec special command. The default value of n is 0. If name is omitted then REPLY is used as the default name. The exit
status is 0 unless an end-of-file is encountered. An end-of-file with the -p option causes cleanup for this process so that another
can be spawned. If the first argument contains a ?, the remainder of this word is used as a prompt on standard error when the shell
is interactive. The exit status is 0 unless an end-of-file is encountered.

-- readonly [ name[=value] ] ...
The given names are marked readonly and these names cannot be changed by subsequent assignment.

- return [ n ]
Causes a shell function to return to the invoking script with the return status specified by n. If n is omitted then the return
status is that of the last command executed. If return is invoked while not in a function or a . script, then it is the same as an
exit.

set [ +-aefhkmnopstuvx ] [ +-o option ]... [ +-A name ] [ arg ... ]
The flags for this command have meaning as follows:
-A Array assignment. Unset the variable name and assign values sequentially from the list arg. If +A is used, the variable
name is not unset first.
-a All subsequent parameters that are defined are automatically exported.
-e If a command has a non-zero exit status, execute the ERR trap, if set, and exit. This mode is disabled while reading pro-
files.
-f Disables file name generation.
-h Each command becomes a tracked alias when first encountered.
-k All parameter assignment arguments are placed in the environment for a command, not just those that precede the command
name.
-m Background jobs will run in a separate process group and a line will print upon completion. The exit status of background
jobs is reported in a completion message. On systems with job control, this flag is turned on automatically for interactive
shells.
-n Read commands and check them for syntax errors, but do not execute them. Ignored for interactive shells.
-o The following argument can be one of the following option names:
allexport
Same as -a.
errexit Same as -e.
bgnice All background jobs are run at a lower priority. This is the default mode.
emacs Puts you in an emacs style in-line editor for command entry.
gmacs Puts you in a gmacs style in-line editor for command entry.
ignoreeof
The shell will not exit on end-of-file. The command exit must be used.
keyword Same as -k.
markdirs
All directory names resulting from file name generation have a trailing / appended.
monitor Same as -m.
noclobber
Prevents redirection > from truncating existing files. Require >| to truncate a file when turned on.
noexec Same as -n.
noglob Same as -f.
nolog Do not save function definitions in history file.
nounset Same as -u.
privileged
Same as -p.
verbose Same as -v.
trackall
Same as -h.
vi Puts you in insert mode of a vi style in-line editor until you hit escape character 033. This puts you in move
mode. A return sends the line.
viraw Each character is processed as it is typed in vi mode.
xtrace Same as -x.
If no option name is supplied then the current option settings are printed.
-p Disables processing of the $HOME/.profile file and uses the file /etc/suid_profile instead of the ENV file. This mode is on
whenever the effective uid (gid) is not equal to the real uid (gid). Turning this off causes the effective uid and gid to
be set to the real uid and gid.
-s Sort the positional parameters lexicographically.
-t Exit after reading and executing one command.
-u Treat unset parameters as an error when substituting.
-v Print shell input lines as they are read.
-x Print commands and their arguments as they are executed.
- Turns off -x and -v flags and stops examining arguments for flags.
-- Do not change any of the flags; useful in setting $1 to a value beginning with -. If no arguments follow this flag then the
positional parameters are unset.

Using + rather than - causes these flags to be turned off. These flags can also be used upon invocation of the shell. The current
set of flags may be found in $-. Unless -A is specified, the remaining arguments are positional parameters and are assigned, in
order, to $1 $2 .... If no arguments are given then the names and values of all named parameters are printed on the standard out-
put. If the only argument is +, the names of all named parameters are printed.

- shift [ n ]
The positional parameters from $n+1 ... are renamed $1 ... , default n is 1. The parameter n can be any arithmetic expression that
evaluates to a non-negative number less than or equal to $#.

- times
Print the accumulated user and system times for the shell and for processes run from the shell.

- trap [ arg ] [ sig ] ...
arg is a command to be read and executed when the shell receives signal(s) sig. (Note that arg is scanned once when the trap is set
and once when the trap is taken.) Each sig can be given as a number or as the name of the signal. Trap commands are executed in
order of signal number. Any attempt to set a trap on a signal that was ignored on entry to the current shell is ineffective. If
arg is omitted or is -, then all trap(s) sig are reset to their original values. If arg is the null string then this signal is
ignored by the shell and by the commands it invokes. If sig is ERR then arg will be executed whenever a command has a non-zero exit
status. sig is DEBUG then arg will be executed after each command. If sig is 0 or EXIT and the trap statement is executed inside
the body of a function, then the command arg is executed after the function completes. If sig is 0 or EXIT for a trap set outside
any function then the command arg is executed on exit from the shell. The trap command with no arguments prints a list of commands
associated with each signal number.

-- typeset [ +-HLRZfilrtux[n] ] [ name[ =value ] ] ...
Sets attributes and values for shell parameters. When invoked inside a function, a new instance of the parameter name is created.
The parameter value and type are restored when the function completes. The following list of attributes may be specified:
-H This flag provides UNIX system to host-name file mapping on non-UNIX system machines.
-L Left justify and remove leading blanks from value. If n is non-zero it defines the width of the field, otherwise it is
determined by the width of the value of first assignment. When the parameter is assigned to, it is filled on the right with
blanks or truncated, if necessary, to fit into the field. Leading zeros are removed if the -Z flag is also set. The -R flag
is turned off.
-R Right justify and fill with leading blanks. If n is non-zero it defines the width of the field, otherwise it is determined
by the width of the value of first assignment. The field is left filled with blanks or truncated from the end if the parame-
ter is reassigned. The L flag is turned off.
-Z Right justify and fill with leading zeros if the first non-blank character is a digit and the -L flag has not been set. If n
is non-zero it defines the width of the field, otherwise it is determined by the width of the value of first assignment.
-f The names refer to function names rather than parameter names. No assignments can be made and the only other valid flags are
-t, -u and -x. The flag -t turns on execution tracing for this function. The flag -u causes this function to be marked
undefined. The FPATH variable will be searched to find the function definition when the function is referenced. The flag -x
allows the function definition to remain in effect across shell procedures invoked by name.
-i Parameter is an integer. This makes arithmetic faster. If n is non-zero it defines the output arithmetic base, otherwise
the first assignment determines the output base.
-l All upper-case characters converted to lower-case. The upper-case flag, -u is turned off.
-r The given names are marked readonly and these names cannot be changed by subsequent assignment.
-t Tags the named parameters. Tags are user definable and have no special meaning to the shell.
-u All lower-case characters are converted to upper-case characters. The lower-case flag, -l is turned off.
-x The given names are marked for automatic export to the environment of subsequently-executed commands.

Using + rather than - causes these flags to be turned off. If no name arguments are given but flags are specified, a list of names
(and optionally the values) of the parameters which have these flags set is printed. (Using + rather than - keeps the values from
being printed.) If no names and flags are given, the names and attributes of all parameters are printed.

ulimit [ -HSacdfmnpstvw ] [ limit ]
Set or display a resource limit. The available resources limits listed below. Many systems to not contain one or more of these
limits. The limit for a specified resource is set when limit is specified. The value of limit can be a number in the unit speci-
fied below with each resource, or the value unlimited. The H and S flags specify whether the hard limit or the soft limit for the
given resource is set. A hard limit cannot be increased once it is set. A soft limit can be increased up to the value of the hard
limit. If neither the H or S options is specified, the limit applies to both. The current resource limit is printed when limit is
omitted. In this case the soft limit is printed unless H is specified. When more that one resource is specified, then the limit
name and unit is printed before the value.
-a Lists all of the current resource limits.
-c The number of 512-byte blocks on the size of core dumps.
-d The number of K-bytes on the size of the data area.
-f The number of 512-byte blocks on files written by child processes (files of any size may be read).
-m The number of K-bytes on the size of physical memory.
-n The number of file descriptors.
-p The number of 512-byte blocks for pipe buffering.
-s The number of K-bytes on the size of the stack area.
-t The number of seconds to be used by each process.
-v The number of K-bytes for virtual memory.
-w The number of K-bytes for the swap area.

If no option is given, -f is assumed.

umask [ mask ]
The user file-creation mask is set to mask (see umask(2)). mask can either be an octal number or a symbolic value as described in
chmod(1). If a symbolic value is given, the new umask value is the complement of the result of applying mask to the complement of
the previous umask value. If mask is omitted, the current value of the mask is printed.

unalias name ...
The parameters given by the list of names are removed from the alias list.

unset [ -f ] name ...
The parameters given by the list of names are unassigned, i. e., their values and attributes are erased. Readonly variables cannot
be unset. If the flag, -f, is set, then the names refer to function names. Unsetting ERRNO, LINENO, MAILCHECK, OPTARG, OPTIND,
RANDOM, SECONDS, TMOUT, and _ causes removes their special meaning even if they are subsequently assigned to.

- wait [ job ]
Wait for the specified job and report its termination status. If job is not given then all currently active child processes are
waited for. The exit status from this command is that of the process waited for. See Jobs for a description of the format of job.

whence [ -pv ] name ...
For each name, indicate how it would be interpreted if used as a command name.

The flag, -v, produces a more verbose report.

The flag, -p, does a path search for name even if name is an alias, a function, or a reserved word.

Invocation.
If the shell is invoked by exec(2), and the first character of argument zero ($0) is -, then the shell is assumed to be a login shell and
commands are read from /etc/profile and then from either .profile in the current directory or $HOME/.profile, if either file exists. Next,
commands are read from the file named by performing parameter substitution on the value of the environment parameter ENV if the file
exists. If the -s flag is not present and arg is, then a path search is performed on the first arg to determine the name of the script to
execute. The script arg must have read permission and any setuid and getgid settings will be ignored. Commands are then read as described
below; the following flags are interpreted by the shell when it is invoked:

-c string If the -c flag is present then commands are read from string.
-s If the -s flag is present or if no arguments remain then commands are read from the standard input. Shell output, except for the
output of the Special commands listed above, is written to file descriptor 2.
-i If the -i flag is present or if the shell input and output are attached to a terminal (as told by ioctl(2)) then this shell is
interactive. In this case TERM is ignored (so that kill 0 does not kill an interactive shell) and INTR is caught and ignored (so
that wait is interruptible). In all cases, QUIT is ignored by the shell.
-r If the -r flag is present the shell is a restricted shell.

The remaining flags and arguments are described under the set command above. The command is used to set up login names and execution envi-
ronments whose capabilities are more controlled than those of the standard shell. The actions of are identical to those of sh, except that
the following are disallowed:
changing directory (see cd(1)),
setting the value of SHELL, ENV, or PATH,
specifying path or command names containing /,
redirecting output (>, >| , <> , and >>).

The restrictions above are enforced after .profile and the ENV files are interpreted.

When a command to be executed is found to be a shell procedure, invokes to execute it. Thus, it is possible to provide to the end-user
shell procedures that have access to the full power of the standard shell, while imposing a limited menu of commands; this scheme assumes
that the end-user does not have write and execute permissions in the same directory.

The net effect of these rules is that the writer of the .profile has complete control over user actions, by performing guaranteed setup
actions and leaving the user in an appropriate directory (probably not the login directory).

The system administrator often sets up a directory of commands (that is, /usr/rbin) that can be safely invoked by Some systems also provide
a restricted editor red.

Exit Status
Errors detected by the shell, such as syntax errors, cause the shell to return a non-zero exit status. Otherwise, the shell returns the
exit status of the last command executed (see also the exit command above). If the shell is being used non-interactively then execution of
the shell file is abandoned. Run time errors detected by the shell are reported by printing the command or function name and the error
condition. If the line number that the error occurred on is greater than one, then the line number is also printed in square brackets ([])
after the command or function name.

Files
/etc/passwd
/etc/profile
/etc/suid_profile
$HOME/.profile
/tmp/sh*
/dev/null

See Also
cat(1), cd(1), chmod(1), cut(1), echo(1), emacs(1), env(1), gmacs(1), newgrp(1), stty(1), test(1), umask(1), vi(1), dup(2), exec(2),
fork(2), ioctl(2), lseek(2), paste(1), pipe(2), signal(2), umask(2), ulimit(2), wait(2), rand(3), a.out(5), profile(5), environ(7).

Morris I. Bolsky and David G. Korn, The KornShell Command and Programming Language, Prentice Hall, 1989.

Caveats
If a command which is a tracked alias is executed, and then a command with the same name is installed in a directory in the search path
before the directory where the original command was found, the shell will continue to exec the original command. Use the -t option of the
alias command to correct this situation.

Some very old shell scripts contain a ^ as a synonym for the pipe character. |.

Using the fc built-in command within a compound command will cause the whole command to disappear from the history file.

The built-in command . file reads the whole file before any commands are executed. Therefore, alias and unalias commands in the file will
not apply to any functions defined in the file.

Traps are not processed while a job is waiting for a foreground process. Thus, a trap on CHLD won't be executed until the foreground job
terminates.

ksh(1)

Linux and UNIX Man Pages

ksh(1) [ultrix man page]